Friday 27 May 2016

VISCOSITY AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF TWO BRANDS OF MOTOR OIL BSC ECT001


VISCOSITY AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF TWO BRANDS OF MOTOR OIL

 

A RESEARCH PROJECT

 

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY UNIT

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR,

PMB 1115, CALABAR, NIGERIA.

 

 

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC.) DEGREE IN ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

 

 

 

MAY, 2014


ABSTRACT

            The viscosity and thermal properties of two brands of motor oil, involves the measurement and analysis of oando motor oil and pennzoil motor oil. This is done using dynamic viscosity test which measures how viscous or how fluid an oil is and also kinematic viscosity test which measures the density and calorimeter for thermal properties.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           i

Certification            -           -           -           -           -           -           -           ii

Dedication   -           -           -           -           -           -           -           iii

Acknowledgement           -           -           -           -           -           -           iv

Abstract       -           -           -           -           -           -           -           -           vi

Table of contents -           -           -           -           -           -           vii

CHAPTER ONE           

1.1      Introduction            -           -           -           -           -           -           1

1.2      Basic Principle of Lubrication     -           -           -           3

1.3      Thermal Degradation       -           -           -           -           7

1.4      Corrosion     -           -           -           -           -           -           8

1.5      Shearing       -           -           -           -           -           -           -           10

1.6      Contamination       -           -           -           -           -           12


CHAPTER TWO

2.1      Viscosity of Oil       -           -           -           -           -           15

2.1.1   Viscosity Index Improver            -           -           -           18

2.1.2  Viscosity Grades    -           -           -           -           -           21

2.3      Motor Oil SAE  Viscosity Classification          -           26      

CHAPTER THREE 

3.1      Motor Oil     -           -           -           -           -           -           -           29

3.2      Types of Motor Oil            -           -           -           -           -           30

3.3      Motor Oil Refining Process        -           -           -           32

3.4      Complex Blended Oil Additive  -           -           -           35

CHAPTER FOUR     

4.1      Motor Oil Viscosity Testing       -           -           -           37

4.2      Concerting to Synthetic Motor Oil      -           -           45

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1      Summary     -           -           -           -           -           -           48

5.2      Conclusion   -           -           -           -           -           -           48

            References  -           -           -           -           -           -             50

CHAPTER ONE

1.1      Introduction   

            One of the largest applications for lubricant, in the form of motor oil, is protecting internal combustion engines. Using the correct motor oil with its appropriate viscosity and thermal properties helps motor engines run smoothly. Primarily, oil stops the metal surfaces in engines from grinding together and wearing by creating a separating oil film between them.

The oil also disperses heat and reduces wear thereby protecting the engine. On top of this, good oil with adequate viscosity and thermal properties prevents dirt build up and deposits by keeping them in suspension. Motor oil even protects against sludge and fights oxidation, keeping the oil fresh and minimizing acids which can cause corrosion in a short time.

            Viscosity is a measure of a “flowability” of an oil. Specifically it is the property of an oil to develop and maintain a certain amount of sheering stress dependent on flow and then to offer continuous flow. (Hackett, 1999). Thicker oil generally have higher viscosity, and thinner oils a lower viscosity; this is the most important property for motor engine oils. An oil with too low viscosity can shear and loose film strength at high temperatures while an oil with too high a viscosity may not pump to the proper parts at low temperatures and film may tear at high temperature.

The weight given amount are arbitrary numbers assigned by the society of automotive engineers (S.A.E). These numbers correspond to “real” viscosity as measured by several accepted techniques and these measurement are taken at specific temperatures.           

            Typically, motor viscosity and their thermal properties are interesting in terms of how they influence the return of the lubricant to the compressor.

Furthermore, when hearing the word “viscosity” the thicker a liquid, the higher the viscosity why the lower the viscosity the thinner the liquid. While the definition also applies to oil, the system uses labels. The viscosity of Passanger Car Oil (PCEO) is one of the least understood automotive specifications. The lower the heat transfer fluids viscosity, the less the energy that would be required to pump it through the system.

1.2      Basic Principle of Lubricant 

            Before a proper lubricant is selected for a specific application some basic theory must be understood. When one surface moves over another there is always some degree of resistance to movement called friction. Friction can manifest it self in varying degrees from smooth easy sliding to uneven erratic movement, which can generate excessive heat and cause damage to moving surfaces.

            Friction is good when it causes the brakes and tries on cars and tracks to stop the vehicle or when it keeps our shoes from slipping on wet surfaces, yet friction is bad when it causes heat, wears and reduces energy in an engine or gearbox.

            Lubrication is simply the use of a material to improve the smoothness of movement by reducing friction. The immediate result is reduced wear and reduced heat generation. There are numerous types of lubricants but for this project the main consideration is synthetic and petroleum motor oils.

The needed force to start the movement is defined as static friction and is typically always greater that the dynamic friction, which is the force required to keep the two materials moving at the same speed once initial movement has started, Dave (2008). Different oils and different materials loading condition can create vastly different coefficients of friction that can affect performance and longevity of an engine and other mechanical components.

A few basic key functions of a motor oil is to reduce friction under all extremes of operating condition, prevent corrosion of internal engine components and provide cooling via transfer of heat.

            When it comes to reduction of friction (as well as preventing corrosion and providing effective heat transfer), for example when using a petroleum oil, under certain conditions, the lubricant film can be either too thin, thus allowing metal-to-metal contact or too viscous which causes high internal friction within the layers of the oil. The key is to select an oil grade that is thin enough to have low internal friction coefficient, yet still high enough to effectively separate two metal surfaces under all operational conditions and prevent excessive wear and heat generation.

The fact proves that synthetic oil because of its good film allows the oil to flow freely for low internal friction, yet still effectively separate metal-to-metal contact surfaces under normal and extreme operating condition and significantly reduce internal wear.

When looking at metal surfaces, such as piston to cylinder, and it is visually seen that they appear smooth, this does not accurately reflect reality until when viewed under a high powered microscope. The smoothest machined surfaces are rough and are viewed as million of peaks and valleys.

These peaks are under extremely high loading and need to wear in (commonly called break-in) on a new engine.

However, there is much discrepancy among automotive and motorsports enthusiast as to how the length of time required for engine wear-in and whether or not petroleum oil must be used for the initial wear-in. (Oscar, 1950).

1.3      Thermal Degradation  

            Whenever a motor oil is heated beyond a certain temperature, it will start to degrade, even if there is no oxygen present. This is called thermal degradation and causes the oil to change viscosity. (Marthin, 2004). The thermal stability of a motor oil cannot be improved by use of additives but it can be improved by refining out the same compounds that decrease the oxidation resistance. As temperature increases, thermal degradation increases. In order for oil to provide proper service protection at high operating temperature, highly refined oils with plenty of anti-oxidant should be used. There is also a direct correlation between price of a particular oil and it’s performance under temperature extremes, less costly oils are generally refined less and have a lower capability to prevent/reduce thermal degradation.

Petroleum oil has a lower thermal property operating temperature range while premium quality synthetic motor oil brands have a very high operating temperature range and are much more resistant to thermal degradation.

1.4      Corrosion    

            Petroleum oil that is new or kept clean by proper filtration is generally non-corrosive and will provide good protection against corrosion caused by the atmosphere. However, inside an engine oil oxidation by-products will attack internal engine steel and bearing materials that are typically manufactured aluminum, copper, lead and tin (a Lead Tin Flashing is used for break-in purpose on the few engines that use aluminum rod and main bearing). Most gasoline and diesel engines use copper lead main and connecting rod bearings.

            The water present due to condensation caused by temperature and humidity changes or short stop and driving where the engine never reaches the proper operating temperature, although still hotter then the ambient temperature, can also cause corrosion. The hotter the oil when water is present, the more the chemical reaction is and corrosion related damage could definitely occur. In addition, water present in an oil for an extended period of time can emulsify the oil and form a mixture which is much more corrosive than the two components alone and can then form a sluge which may block oil filter or small passages. It is critical to operate an engine at normal operating temperature to prevent as well as burn off any water that is present by an evaporation process. The most severe type of driving an oil can be subjected to (as well as an internal components) is short drives and intermittent operation in which the engine and oil never have time to reach normal operating temperatures for an extended period of time.

A quality motor oil will have a corrosion inhibitor added. Corrosion inhibitors also vary in terms of effectiveness, quality and quantity.

1.5      Shearing            

            The word “oil breaking”, is used by many people to represent what they think is a motor oil that is “broken down” and is in need of changing, when in reality the actual process of “break down” is not properly understood. The correct word for this is oil break down due to shear forces. An internal combustion engine imparts high shear forces on a motor oil, which is mixed between two rotating sliding forces under load and heat. The molecular structure is essentially torn apart by these mechanical shear forces. The component of the oil affected most by these shear forces is the viscosity improver.

These viscosity improvers allow the manufacturer of the oil to create multi-grade oils suitable for a wider temperature range of operation. The end result of these shear forces is a decrease in the viscosity of the oil as well as a decrease in the viscosity index. Once a motor oil has sheared beyond a specific point it will not revert back to it is base structure when it cools down and the shear forces have ceased. This does not affect synthetic oil because synthetic motor oils are extremely resistant to the detrimental effects of shear forces.

            This phenomenon can be explained thus: A look at the molecular structure of motor oil under a microscope we see chains of molecules grouped together and linked together. The smaller molecular particles are attached to the larger ones. As an oil shears these smaller molecules break away and align in the chain. As engine heat and shear forces continue and increase these molecules break away from the base structure and in the process provide less and less resistance to wear. If this shearing continues over an extended period of time engine damage can occur. If shearing is not much then when the oil cools down the structure will be never back to its original structure and still be capable of providing proper engine protection. (Khomenko, 2007).           

1.6      Contamination

            Contamination of motor oil causes deterioration of the oil. Some of the more common contaminant sources include dirt, sand and dust from the air, soot, unburned fuel in the oil, water from condensation of the combustion process, wear, metal particulates that oil filter cannot trap and hold, corrosion by-products and additive elements that have degraded. A combination of dirt, sand and dust can continue to enter the engine and, in addition to creating more wear, combine with other contaminants and cause more damage than they would separately.

            One of the many by-products of combustion is soot.  Soot can be highly abrasive as well as cause filters to become filled and/or plugged in extreme cases. Another contaminant is acidic by-product of combustion, which can produce highly corrosive mixture and cause corrosion and pitting of internal engine component and additional generation of wear debris. These same acidic solutions can also mix with water inside the engine and form an emulsion that can cause problems with oil filters and passageways.

            Yet another source of contamination is fuel. A charge of fuel is rarely 100% burned during the combustion process. This unburned fuel can mix with the oil present in the cylinders.

Fuel contamination can also be caused by worn sealing components such as excessive piston ring to cylinder clearances allowing unburned fuel to blow-by the rings. When a motor oil is diluted with fuel the effect is that the viscosity is lowered. If this reaches extremes of contamination excessive wear and engine damage can take place. Operating an engine not sufficiently warned up can also increase combustion, blow-by. It is much better to let your engine sufficiently warm up before driving away which can have a significant effect on preventing fuel blow by as well as producing a much more efficient combustion cycle.


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Friday 20 May 2016

DEMONSTRATION OF HOW MATHEMATICAL MODEL CAN BE USE TO DESCRIBE THE GROWTH OF MICROBIAL ORGANISM(S) AND HOW IT CAN BE USED TO PREDICT SUCH GROWTH IN THE FUTURE WITH THE VIEW OF PREVENTING IT - BSC MAT001


CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     General Overview

In this research work we shall demonstrate how mathematical model can be use to describe the growth of microbial organism(s) and how it can be used to predict such growth in the future with the view of preventing it. This is very pertinent especially when the growth is of negative economic gain. A mathematical model for microbial growth is a necessary component in the efficient assessment of food contamination, shelf-life and risk assessment in supply chain.

When food is chilled, it is meant to stand a taste of time before decay. But the durability of this (the shelf-life of the food) is a function of many environmental factors such as the storage temperature, pressure, the amount of micro-organisms in that environment etc  (Gordon, 2010). This research is geared toward taken into consideration one of these variables (temperature) to predict the growth of the micro-organism under variable temperature and how the shelf- life of chicken can be affected.
Pseudomonas species is one of the micro-organisms that cause spoilage in chilled foods. Sequel to the economic implications of the growth in freeze chicken then, the need for the prediction.

Mathematical modeling is one of the few available instruments for predicting possible growth of pseudomonas species and the effects of such on the shelf-life of frozen chicken. Our model(s) will consist of differential equation(s) which is normally analytically solved to predict the growth of pseudomonas species on chicken and how this reduces the shelf-life.

1.2     Research Overview

Growth is one of the phenomena that characterize living things. The term growth is used to indicate both increase in size (of individual organisms) and increase in numbers (of populations). Traditionally, growth of individuals and population growth belong to different provinces of biology but modelers rarely respect this demarcation lines. The growth of micro-organisms especially those of negative economic importance call for concern from every rational human being in the society. The increase in the number of cells (unicellular microbial organisms) will lead to increase (aggravation) in their physiological actions that will tend to affect people in the society either positively or negatively. The growth may leads to outbreak of diseases and reduction in shelf-life of food when acting on them.

This reduction in shelf-life means economic danger as when the food cannot stand a taste of time. It means that the owner cannot make the best out of it, thus, maximum utility cannot be achieved.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Pseudomonas species are motile, rod shaped aerobe gram-negative bacteria. They are found everywhere, in soil, water, plants and animals. In most cases, it is not pathogenic and in fact can be beneficial. For example, pseudomonas putida is used as bio-scrubber to aid in the bio-degradation of diverse organic compounds in polluted air and waste water.

However, pseudomonas aeruginosa is an infamous opportunistic human pathogen most commonly affecting immuno-compromised patients. Along with pseudomonas mattophilia, it accounts for the majority infections and spoilage. Pathogenic pseudomonas are found throughout the body most commonly, urinary tract, respiratory tract, blood and wounds.

They can remain viable for long period of time in many different habitats and under very adverse conditions. Pseudomonas are wide spread, found in water, saline solution, utensils and even in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and disinfectants ,and many natural and manufactured foods (Kenneth,2009).  Psychrotrophic (cold tolerant) pseudomonas are significant food spoilage problem in refrigerated meat, shell-fish, chicken and dairy products.

The growth of pseudomonas can be inhibited by a considerably very low temperature thus, the importance of storing manufactured foods under such temperature. Thus, storing chicken under these temperature zones, we can be able to predict the quantity of the microbial growth and the effects on the shelf-life of chicken.

In this research, we shall be concerned with the quantitative aspect of predicting the growth of pseudomonas and interpreting the effects of the given quantity at particular time on chicken shelf-life. Basically the modeling process in this research will involve:

i.                        Taking real world problem.

ii.                      Formulate a mathematical model(s) for the real life situation.

iii.              Interpret/solve the model(s) and

iv.                   Returning it back to real life for analysis.

          From above, the expectation of this work is to know how the organisms grow and how the growths affect the shelf-life with the view of knowing the best temperature to store chicken products.

In the past, predictive microbiology can be used to determine and predicts the shelf-life of perishable foods under commercial distribution conditions based on microbial growth kinetics.

          A combination of microbial kinetics with engineering accumulation approach can be used to predict the final microbial level in a food or the loss of shelf-life for any known time-temperature sequence if there is no history effect or the history effect is negligible.

          Specifically, the case study of this research will be chicken killed and prepared for preservation under variable temperature. And, our model shall try to estimate the increase in the concentration of pseudomonas species as the time changes under the temperature condition. The model will be simple ordinary differential equation(s).

          In all cases, microbial growth under variable environmental conditions is described by first order kinetic that is by a single or by a system of ordinary differential equations of first order (poschet etal 2005).

          One of the most important environmental parameters, from the food safety and quality point of view is temperature. Considering the temperature changes along the supply change, the use of dynamic models which are able to take into account the influence of temperature variation and other factors on microbial growth is essential for prediction of products shelf life when considering decay causing microorganisms and for risk assessment, when considering food borne pathogens.
 
1.3   Aims and Objectives

The aim shall be specifically concerned with how to use simple growth model to estimate the increase in the concentration of pseudomonas in chilled chickens and how this change affects the shelf life. We shall formulate the growth model in terms of ordinary differential equation.

This work will equally try to look the two basic growth models-Geometric growth model and logistic growth model, and why the earlier can hardly be used to estimate the concentration in the population.

1.4    Scope and Limitations:

          Our scope shall be limited to single simple differential growth models. Equally our temperature of investigation will range from normal room temperature to freezing temperature. And since we are not going to collect data for investigation, our model will be based on the assumptions mentioned in (3.4)

1.5   Definition of basic Terms

(a)    Growth:

Growth may be refers to an increase in size or numbers of living organisms over time (Haughton, 2005).

(b)   Bacterial Growth:

Bacterial growth is the division of one piece of bacterium into two daughter cells in a process called binary fission (Paul and Peter, 1992).

(c)   Binary Fission:

This can be defined as the method of asexual reproduction that involves the splitting of a parent cell into two approximately equal parts. (Paul and Peter,1992).    

(d)    Shelf Life:

Shelf life is the length of time a product may be stored without becoming unsuitable for use or consumption (Gordon, 2010).

(e)    Temperature:

This can be defines as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment (Gordon, 2010).

(f)    Food Temperature Danger Zone:

The temperature range in which food borne bacteria can grow is known as the danger zone (Gordon, 2010). 

(g)   Doubling Time:

This is the period of time required for the microorganism to double in number (Neeraj and Sharma, 2007).

(h)   Specific Growth Rate (ยต):

This can be define as the increase in cell mass per unit time (Friedrick, 2010)

(i)   Relative Rate of Spoilage (RRS):

RRS at a temperature  has been defined as the shelf at 00C divide by the shelf life at  (Gordon, 2010).

(j)   Model:

Model can be defined as a simplified representation of a certain aspects of a real system (Edwards, 2001).

(k)   Mathematical Model:

This can be define d as a model created using mathematical concepts such as functions and equations (Edwards, 2001).

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL AND INVESTIGATION OF STORM WATER QUALITY OF UGEP URBAN YAKURR LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF CROSS RIVER STATE_BSC GEO001


CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1     BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The potential and quality of water, is an economic resources essential component of human life. However, the deterioration in major cities and urban centers due to population explosion, urbanization and industrialization results in large volume of effluent discharge that may affect the water quality since the effluent from discharge or run-off from solid waste disposal sites generally moves downwards.

Land use in geographic areas that replenish groundwater and surface water resources is increasingly recognized as an important factor affecting water quality and consequently, the health of human and ecological communities are sustained by these resources. For instance, release from commercial/industrial facilities, agricultural run-off and wastewater leaching into the groundwater from residential septic systems can introduce a variety of pesticides into water supplies.

The formulation and use of indices has been strongly advocated by agencies responsible for water supply and control of water pollution. Water quality index [WQI] is defined as a rating reflecting the opposite influence of different water quality parameters.

The index serves as a tool for assessing the suitability of water quality. Water is portable because it is ingestible. Hence to get the quality of water the quantity must be sampled. Sampling is the process of obtaining data for physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters analysis. The following parameters are selected for this study DO, PH, E.C,  NO2, NO3, NH4, TP, TSS, TDS, THC, TCC, BOD5 TURB, COD, and TEMP.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

            The primary objective of this study is to develop a regression model, and investigate the storm water quality of the study area (Ugep Urban), Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State. And serve as a benchmark for future researchers.

The key objectives to be fulfilled in this study are:

1.2.1 To determine the bacteriological and physico-chemical qualities of storm water quality model in Ugep Urban.

1.2.2 To determine the pollution contributing to streams water around the study area.

1.2.3 To estimate seasonal pollutant mass load trend for Ugep Urban water quality.

1.2.4 To develop a model to enhance effective monitoring on stormwater quality of the study area.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

           This study is concern with development of storm water quality model for Ugep urban Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State.

Because of time constrain, ten (10) sampling location were randomly selected within the study area. The total of fifteen (15) parameters were use to determine   the stormwater samples collected from the above mention location (1-10) and analyzed for physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics. The parameters are as follows TEMP, TURB, DO, BOD5, COD, E.C, TP, NO2, ­NO3, NH4, TSS, TDS, THC,PH,TCC. This research is made up of five [5] chapters as follows: Introduction, Literature review, Research methodology, Result and Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation. Tables are also introduced for proper information and data presentation, and abbreviations are included.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research finding will offer following benefits to researchers, public, and relevant government agencies valuable information about water quality use in Ugep Urban.

The significance of this study includes:

 1.4.1 To identify the major pollutant of the water body in the study area.

 1.4.2 To provide information for further research.

1.4.3 To provide guidelines on how to control water pollution by avoiding behaviors that causes water pollution.

4.1.4 To provide opportunities for better integration of environmental policy.
1.5   LIMITATION OF STUDY

This study title development of stormwater quality model a case study of Ugep Urban is limited to the following:

1.5.1 The cost of carrying out the test, labor involved in examining the study area during raining season.


1.5.2    The limited time required in carrying out this research work, which in normal circumstance would have taken a very long period of time to study.
1.6 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The impact of anthropogenic activities in Ugep Urban water resources is as a result of increasing rate of urbanization. This has exposed the inhabitants of the community to different water diseases like guinea worm and threat of life. The greater concern of these streams water sources, is due to the fact that water from streams, boreholes are use for different purposes (domestic, agricultural, industrial etc). These water sources are affected because of the effluents discharged from municipal waste, agriculture and urban run-off into the streams. So, there should be a need for proper and intensive understanding of various parameters affecting the Ugep Urban water quality, and design a good model approach to serve as a guide to Ugep Urban water sources for effective monitoring.
1.7 AREA OF STUDY

Ugep Urban is the study area: Ugep is a community which has the highest population in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State-Nigeria. The area lies between the latitude of 04055’35’’ N and longitude 9021’00’’ E with an annual rainfall of 182cm-30cm.

The atmospheric condition of the area is relatively high with annual mean minimum and maximum temperature of 210c and 320c and relative humidity of 720c. The area consists of two seasons, the wet and dry season respectively. The wet season is known as rainy season and last from April-October with maximum rainfall in the month of June and a little August break in second week of September. The dry season is also known as the harmattan period starting from November to March. The topography of the area is stable with a slope of about 1:500. The precipitation is 1:800mm of which more than 40% falls during the rainy season months of May-August. The area is covered by sand, clay, gravel, silt and little deposit of metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Hydrological, the area is consists of two sub auriferous units and upper generally less than 30m and a lower sandy zone. The entire hydrological system, consisting of these two sub units is termed (coastal plain and sandy aquifer) respectively.

Culturally the people are known to have many interesting cultural heritage and value like the worldwide known LEBOKU Festival, Obam dance, Kokoma dance, Traditional Wrestling and a host of other which unite them and make them very sociable people. To about 50% of her inhabitants are farmers due to the fertile nature of their land resulting to celebration of new yam festival known as LEBOKU Festival.

Commercially the area is a central business district (CBD) of its own because of good location and good road network connecting the northern part of Nigeria to the East and western parts respectively. It also serve as a focal point of commercial activities to the three [3] Local Government Area of the State around them (Obubra, Abi and Biase) in north, west and south respectively.

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